About Nature Policy, Large Ecosystems
in a Small and Crowded Country
and the Role Large Herbivores can Play:
Challenges For Future!

von H. Kampf, Wageningen / Niederlande

7. Large herbivore initiative

The fragmentation of large areas was one of the reasons why the Large Herbivore Initiative for Europe and Central Asia was established in Bialowieza, Poland, in February 1998. A year before, the WWF had launched the Large Carnivore Initiative for Europe, which focuses on the wolf, brown bear, lynx and wolverine.

The WWF large herbivore Initiative is managed by Fred Baerselman and works with the threatened species in Europe and Central Asia. Points for attention are the fragmentation of their habitats, the isolation of different populations and the role of large herbivores in various ecosystems. 

The Large Herbivore Initiative’s aims are:

• improving the living environment for large herbivores;
• co-ordinating and disseminating knowledge of and experience with large herbivores
• identifying gaps in this knowledge and experience.

The Large Herbivore Initiative’s target is of particular significance for cattle and horses, both wild and de-domesticated. This last word, de-domesticated, requires some explanation. European wild cattle (Aurochs) and horses (Tarpan) became extinct a long time ago, the cattle in 1627 in the Forest of Jaktorowska and the horses in 1887 in the Moscow Zoo. Modern literature suggests that the importance of these animals to ecosystems has been underestimated and forgotten.

Fortunately, recent experiences have shown that some breeds of domestic cattle and horses can be bred to suit wild, natural conditions. The theory is that it must be possible to de-domesticate animals which are domestic at present. An example is the Heck cattle bred by the Heck brothers who managed the Berlin and Munich zoos in the 1920s. Heck cattle are a mix of many European cattle breeds.

On different places practical ideas are being worked out to cross different breeds, such as Heckcattle with cattle breeds with longer legs, more height etc., like here in Germany in the Lippe area (North Rine-Westphalia), which is managed by the ABU (Arbeitsgemeinschaft Biologischer Umweltschutz). In that region they had an interesting 6000 year old finding of this auerochs head with a wide of about a meter. 

Perhaps you have heard of my colleague Frans Vera and his book "Metaphors for the wilderness. Oak, hazel, cattle and horse". His book was a shock to foresters and biologists alike. His theory is that the primeval vegetation in the lowlands of central and Western Europe was not a closed forest, but a park-like landscape. Vegetation followed a cyclical process in which large herbivores must have played an essential role. 

He concluded that:

• the vegetation followed a cyclical process, maintained in part by large herbivores;
• thorny stands of scrub evolved among which trees were able to grow out of reach from grazers;
• the trees grew into a forest;
• this degenerated slowly into grassland under the influence of large herbivores and catastophes such as drought and storms;
• after this the cycle began anew.

At some point in the process, all the phases of the cycle will be visible in a large area. In other words, several different biotopes occurred at the same time from grassland and scrub to forest, but not always in the same place. Vera called this the theory of cyclical vegetation turnover. 

Ever since I read Vera’s thesis and especially since I walked with him through different forests, I’ve been convinced that there is a vacancy for cattle and horses in our ecosystems. There are animals available ready to fill these vacancies. The challenge is to create conditions under which they can succeed along with other wild herbivores and also with large carnivores.

His book will be published in English, publication in September 2000 (http://www.home.zonnet.nl/hanskampf/index.html)

My theory is that each of the large herbivores has their own specific ecological niche. Since wild cattle and horses are extinct, their ecological niches are vacant, but indispensable. 

This brings up a number of questions, such as: 

• Is it possible to de-domesticate domestic animals such as primitive cattle and horse breeds? Some old breeds still have their wild ancestors’ characteristics.
• Will they fill their ancestors’ original ecological niche?
• Which breeds are most suitable for de-domestication in central and eastern Europe?
• Are Heck cattle and Konik horses the most suitable types?
• Are other old breeds available, such as the Estonian horse? (an inventory must be made).
• It is said that the volume of the brain shrinks by 15-35% during the domestication process. How might this affect the de-domestication process?
• The decline in brain volume has also been found in Przewalski horses, which have been in captivity from the beginning of the 20^th century. Crossing in 1906 with one Mongolian stallion and strong inbreeding may have affected these horses’ brain pan. Would brain volume increase with de-domestication?

7.3 Discussion about the words: de-domestication and feral

A feral animal can be a domesticated animal which has accidentally (or without the deliberate intervention of humankind) established itself as a self-sustaining and reproducing population. An English dictionary states: "a feral animal is one in a wild state after escape from captivity". 

De-domestication is the deliberate establishment in the wild of a population of a domesticated animals with the specific aim of producing a self-sustaining and reproducing population, which will in time revert to its extinct ancestor's natural characteristics, in such a way, so that they can live as if wild. 

There are a number of questions to ask if you are considering grazing in your area, such as what kind of animals to use and which grazing system to develop. 

The choice of animals depends on the defined nature targets. The choice of nature targets in turn depends on climate and local conditions (such as size of the area, vegetation, abiotic conditions) and local aspects such as interest of local farmers and demand for the animal’s products. Costs for animals themselves play an important role, plus fences, drinking water, supplemental food and shelters if needed, and costs of staff. 

When setting up a system for grazing we can choose year-round grazing and seasonal grazing. If seasonal, choices can be made between summer grazing, spring and autumn grazing or winter-only grazing. This choice also depends on the area and the targets. 

The types of grazing differ as to the amount of human intervention, some examples for the discussion: 

• the wilderness system:
  animals live free and roam through the wilderness. Like game animals, in fact no one owns them. Management on the level of the whole population. No individual healing, except euthanasia (mercy killing).

• the "New Forest" system:
  animals also live free and roam about in a somewhat wild environment. Every animal has an owner, but they live together. Every autumn the surplus of animals is harvested. Every animal is known. (other words: communeaux, haciendas).

• the agricultural system:
  every owner has his animals fenced in. Harvesting surplus depends on the requirements of the farmer.

Fig. 12